The Plots Against Hitler (Eamon
Dolan/ Houghton Mifflin 2016)
by Danny Orbach of the Weatherhead Center for International
Affairs -
“Guilt, no other word carries so
much significance when considering German history. Even the drama of July 20,
1944 plot to kill Hitler, staged by Col. Claus von Stauffenberg and his
confederates in the anti-Nazi resistance movement, is fraught with guilt and a maelstrom
of other emotions, which we view through the thick fog of myth and memory.”
“The story of the anti-Nazi
underground in the German army and its various attempts to assassinate Hitler
has been cast and recast in books, movies, screenplays, and TV shows. That is
hardly surprising, as the story contains elements of a thriller: nocturnal
meetings in frozen fields; the elaborate drama of military conspiracies; bombs
hidden in briefcases and liqueur bottles; and the dramatic day of July 20,
1944, with its abortive assassination and final, desperate attempt at a coup d’etat.”
“In ten-years of research prior to
the publication of Valkyrie, my Hebrew-language monograph on the resistance, I
examined every primary and secondary source I could find. My research took me
to some thirteen archives in Germany, England, Russia and the United States. At
times I was shocked by my own findings...The representation of the resistance
by such scholars is often a caricature, a ‘crooked mirror’ that teaches us more
about the political bias of the scholars than about the German resistance
itself.”
“The story of the German resistance
conspirators, however, was essentially a military one…Previous studies have
tended to focus on groups or individuals in the resistance, but almost none of
them, as far as I have been able to establish, have adequately analyzed the
interactions between members of these groups….How did the conspiratorial
networks operate in reality, and how did different leadership styles affect the
outcome of plots and their chances of success? Most importantly, we shall see
how certain individuals, whom we shall call brokers and connectors, kept the
networks alive by ensuring that information flowed within them.”
“In addition, we shall deal with the
complexities involved in the decision of the German resistance fighters to
assassinate Hitler. On the one hand, such an action offered the enormous
temptation to change the course of history with one stroke. On the other,
murdering one’s sovereign leader was, for most conspirators, ideologically,
legally, and morally problematic. How did the leaders of the resistance, devout
Christians as they were, justify the killing of their hierarchical superior, to
whom they swore an oath of allegiance?”
"A particularly important
source is the almost inexhaustibly rich trove of documents collected by the
late professor Harold C. Deutsch and preserved among his papers at the U.S.
Army Heritage and Education Center in Carlisle, Pa."
Orbach discusses Marinus van der
Lubbe - a Ditch citizen who was blamed for the Reichstag fire and was considered
by many to be, like Oswald, a patsy framed for the crime.
"The only model that could work
for a coup d' etat under totalitarian conditions would be an elitist
underground with access to arms, and a very limited number of powerful
members."
"In this book, the network
structure of the German resistance movement, guided by the rule of
revolutionary mutation, has been discussed."
“Until that fateful day, Stauffenberg and his
coconspirators had been preparing, down to its last detail, the coup d’etat’s
operational plan. They treated it – as they were trained to – as staff work,
and applied careful concealment procedures.”
“When Beck, for example, visited Olbricht
for consultations, he took pains to shake off Gestapo agents on his tail.
First, he went to the train station and waited on the platform as if he were
going to take an express train. When the train came, he sneaked into the tunnel
between the platforms and took an exit to a side street, where Olbricht’s
son-in-law, Fredrich Georgi, was waiting in a military vehicle. Likewise,
Olbricht followed strict procedures when meeting Gisevius….”
Ah Gisevius. A key agent and operative
of Allen Dulles and his cohort Mary Bancroft, who controlled Gisevius out of
Switzerland.
“Originally the Valkyrie orders were
designed to reinforce the eastern front in case of a sudden military collapse.
Valkyrie II, a revision drafted by Olbricht’s office in the spring of 1942,
authorized the Home Army to promptly deploy its units locally in case of a
paratrooper attack, an uprising of foreign workers, or another emergency inside
the Reich. On July 31, 1943, Olbrich dramatically revised the orders for the
purpose of the coup d’etat. According to the revision, which was duly authorized
by General Fromm, the commander of the home front had the authority to deploy
not only his own troops but all detachments and soldiers within reach,
including military schools, personnel on leave, and units in training and
reorganization. They were to be organized within six hours into combat
detachments and to be moved as quickly as possible, using all available means, wherever
they were needed. All other existing security measures and plans were to be
carried out exclusively in accordance with Valkyrie.”
“By carefully redrawing the plan
along these lines, the conspirators, whose bastion was the Home Army, secured
for themselves unlimited control over the Wehrmacht in Germany, most
importantly in the Greater Berlin area. They also took care to practice, drill,
and rehearse the plan multiple times in different military districts to improve
performance and, above all, the reaction time of the troops. Wisely, it was
decided that ‘the preparations must be carried through as secretly as possible.
By no means should authorities or individuals outside the Wehrmacht be informed
about the intentions or the preparations.’ The idea was, of course, to keep the
prying eyes of the SS, Gestapo and SD away from the plans.”
“The leaders of the resistance
decided that immediately upon the Fuhrer’s death, the Valkyrie orders would be
sent to all Wehrmacht district commanders.”
“Hence, the conspirators of July 20,
1944, failed not because they were dilettantes but rather because they were
excessively professional. A military revolt has some elements in common with a
military operation, and it presumes a certain kind of ordered, methodical work;
but, at the end of the day, it is very different from a military operation.
More than order, it requires improvisation, even wildness – an ability to
ignore good caution and to leap into the unknown. The conspirators were
educated soldiers, not revolutionaries. No one had any training in the art of
the coup d’etat….Professionals they were – just not the right profession.”
“After the execution of Beck, Stauffenberg,
Mertz, Olbricht, and Haeften, the Bendlerstrasse was combed by SS teams lead by
Skorzeny and Kaltenbrunner. They had the conspirators chained to each other,
and brought them to the notorious Gestapo headquarters at Prinz Albrecht
Strasse. Many were greeted with beatings…”
“Gisevius was still roaming around
Germany. As creative as he was daring, he tried to hide in the most improbably
place: Berlin. It seems, though, that for all his resourcefulness, what really
helped him was the fact that, unlike those of the others, his personal networks
went far beyond the conspiracy. Temporarily, he took refuge with friends while
trying to contact the most useful, but also the remotest, part of his network:
contacts with the American OSS.”
“Gisevius, as usual, had been
luckier than others. While he was hiding in a Berlin safe house, his friends
from the American OSS worked to save his life. ‘Good news came from Switzerland
for me personally. Help was on the way. I had friends there – and friends
helped. A ‘book’ given to intermediaries was to serve as confirmation to me
that I could trust the messenger. A week
passed – two, three, four. Then it came.’”
“In addition, Gisevius was informed
that help would arrive ‘shortly.’ After months of nerve-racking anticipation, a
mysterious women came into the hideout and asked him if ‘everything was all
right.’ A few moments later, the doorbell rang again. Gisevius rushed out, only
to see a blacked-out car racing away. A package was waiting for him in the
mailbox. There, he found a Gestapo ID and a forged passport under the name Dr.
Hoffmann, complete with a top-secret document from the Gestapo in Berlin.
Gisevius must have been astonished: Dr. Hoffmann, it was written there, was an
agent going to perform confidential and important duty in Switzerland. All officials
of the government and the party were required to help him as much as they
could. Gisevius left for the train station immediately. Resourceful and
ruthless as ever, he showed the ID, declared himself a Gestapo agent, and
secured a comfortable seat. A few hours elapsed, and he arrived at the Swiss
border.”
“In conclusion, the model of
connected cliques substantially increased the chance of assassinating Hitler
and putting a coup d’etat in motion. However, despite the continuous efforts of
talented brokers like Schlabrendorff and Kaiser, the chronic problems of
coordination decreased the likelihood of success, even if Hitler was
successfully knocked off stage. An improvement in one aspect increased the risk
in others.
"Stauffenberg's wheel
conspiracy was an attempt to increase both revolutionary autarky and
control without damaging overall security. According to the pattern mentioned
earlier, the task was difficult, if not impossible. On the one hand, to bolster
autarky, there was a need for more confidants and partners. On the other, when
the conspiracy expanded, control and security suffered."
“Stauffenberg tried to square the
circle through a unique, charismatic style of leadership and ability to command….Stauffenberg
set strict laws of secrecy and compartmentalization to ensure that the arrest
of one member would not expose the whole network. The results were mixed.”
“The expansion of the conspiracy
decreased control, as expected, but Stauffenberg’s charisma created an illusion
of increased control. So great was the illusion that the conspirators believed,…that
‘both the Wehrmach and the civilian population would cheer them along. It never
crossed their mind that they might encounter resistance.’ The illusion blinded
Stauffenberg to the disloyalty of some officers. When it became clear that
Hitler was alive, his power dissolved completely.”
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